Доклад профессора Б. Томпсона на IV Конвенте РАМИ
SPACE, TIME, AND CYCLES IN WORLD POLITICS
William R. Thompson
Dept. of Political Science
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN. 47405 USA wthompso@indiana.edu
World politics takes place in space and time. Yet as social scientists we have long been told (Przeworski and Teune, 1970) that we should work towards replacing references to space and time with more general variables. We should not refer to specific countries by name. Rather, the most appropriate path is to substitute their attributes – large or small, rich or poor, powerful or weak. References to time are even more undesirable. Unless theory insists otherwise (and it never does), we should treat all eras as if they were identical which usually means ignoring temporal parameters altogether.
The problem is that space and time do make differences. Most of the some 200 states currently operating in world politics have marginal impacts on world politics. The question is which actors matter most in deciphering the vagaries of world politics? How should we isolate them theoretically and empirically? We suspect that the post-Cold War era is somehow different than the Cold War era that, in turn, was different from the interwar era. The question is how should we distinguish some years and decades as distinctly different from other years and decades? Just how does time matter in world politics?
One approach to resolving these problems involves focusing on the circulation of elite states and their movement up and down the power hierarchy. The elite states do not dictate all of world politics but they do play roles that are disproportional to their relative population and territorial size. They ascend. They decline. If these ascents and declines possess discernable structures, otherwise known as cycles of concentration and deconcentration of power, it is possible to make generalized sense of world politics without excluding space and time.
But the question remains how can there be cycles of world politics? If world politics is anarchic and chaotic, how can there be strong repetitive or cyclical patterns? How can anarchy and chaos be strongly patterned? There are at least five answers. One obvious answer is that we have exaggerated the degree to which world politics is anarchic and chaotic. For many international relations scholars, anarchy is a codeword for the absence of centralized government. Without very concrete institutions such as are possessed by most domestic political systems, it is assumed, disorder must prevail. But what if some degree of order is conceivable even without concrete executives and legislatures? Is it not possible that anarchy in world politics is more a variable than a constant?
Some will retort that world politics, with or without central institutions, is invariably chaotic and unpredictable. There can be no question that, on occasion, these descriptors certainly apply. We have all been surprised from time to time by events that seem to emerge without warning. Some parts of the world are definitely less ordered than others, seemingly moving from one set of frictions to another – even though that may suggest another type of predictability. But, the emphasis on chaos and unpredictability works best if it is applied to short term, week-to-week perspectives on world politics. If we take a step back from the daily disorder and noise, patterns begin to emerge. Cycles in world politics are very much concerned with long-term dynamics. It seems fair to suggest that analysts who are most comfortable with the inspection of long-term dynamics are the least likely to be allergic to cyclical conceptualizations. The converse should hold as well. Those least comfortable with long-term dynamics are least likely to tolerate cyclical claims.
A second answer is why not? What is so unnatural about cycles that they would be precluded from occurring in the realm of world politics? Cycles are hardly uncommon. People get up in the morning and go to sleep at night thanks in part to other natural cycles involving the rotation of the earth and the need to rest human bodies. We wear more clothes in the winter and much less in the summer, especially if you are an academic who does not have to show up at an office 12 months out of the year. Whether you are an academic or not, we are all born and eventually die. Cycles are quite ubiquitous in human life. World politics is engaged in by humans. Why should we not expect to find cycles, therefore, in world politics?
A third answer to the question of whether we should expect cycles in world politics is that the history of world politics is replete with examples of states becoming more and less powerful. States are born, rarely die for various reasons including current norms against territorial conquest, but do possess influence in world politics that is hardly constant. Tables 1 and 2 demonstrate this fact of world political life at the most elite level quite readily.
/Table 1 about here/
Table 1 lists the top three global naval powers every 50 years for the past 500 years. The measurement of naval power is characterized by a number of technological changes in what contributes to relative capability at sea. Briefly, the measurement index begins in the 16th century by counting armed warships owned by states, gravitates towards ships-of-the-line subject to escalating minimal cannon count in the 17th through the first half of the 19th centuries, switches to armored battleships in second half of the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries, before focusing on heavy aircraft carriers and nuclear submarines after 1945. Despite the multiple changes in what is counted, there is some increasing stability in the number one column. Looking at a specific year can be misleading but the pattern is that an early Iberian lead gave way to a contest among the Netherlands, England, and France that was resolved in the English or British favor through the 18th and 19th centuries. In the 20th century, the United States became the predominant global naval power.
Thus, over the past 500 years some seven states, at different times, have competed for the leading positions in the naval hierarchy. Early contenders, such as Portugal, dropped out entirely while others (France, Spain) fell by the wayside more gradually. If one looks at the gaps between the number one state and its two closest competitors, there are years in which there is not much difference (1500, 1600, 1700) and years in which the level of concentration is quite high (1550, 1750, 1800, 1850, 1950, 2000) and one state has a dominant lead.
Table 2 counts the size of European armies over the past 500 years. There are certainly technological changes that are applicable to armies. Pikes gave way to muskets, cavalry to tanks, and artillery became increasingly lethal and accurate. Yet the bulk size of armies has retained some significance, with larger armies, other things being equal, maintaining some edge over smaller armies. Moreover, the size of armies usually signified something about state ambitions in their local region. Larger armies have indicated not only relatively large populations but also interests in foreign policy ambitions and territorial expansion in the home region.
/Table 2 about here/
Table 2’s number 1 column shares some similarities with table 1’s first place column. Another early Iberian lead gave way to a French lead which, in turn, gave way to a Russian/Soviet predominance in land power. While there are a similar number of contenders overall (8 in table 2 compared to 7 in table 1), there are long periods of single state predominance. The numbers in parentheses in table 2 are army sizes averaged over five year periods as opposed to proportional shares due to a reluctance to pool European army sizes without certain analytical interventions. Still, there are years in which the lead power has a strong lead ( 1550-04, 1800-04, 1950-54) and years in which the lead is less strong (1500-04, 1650-54, 2000). While years of high and low concentration are demonstrated in both tables, one difference between tables 1 and 2 that requires inspection of more continuous, serial information is that periods of high concentration in global naval power tend to be associated with periods of low concentration in European army power, and vice versa (Thompson, 1992; Rasler and Thompson, 1994).
Analysts, such as some neorealists, who assume that things do not change much in international relations are definitely wrong when it comes to interstate pecking orders. They have undergone considerable change in the last half millennium. If we have states rising and falling in the pecking order, with some states becoming quite powerful for finite periods of time, there is a good chance of finding trajectories of ascent and decline that translate into cycles of world politics. Influence is not an elastic phenomenon. Usually, ascending states improve their status at the expense of other, declining states. In particular, states at the very top of the pecking order have usually had to dislodge their predecessor. Thus, so long as we have pecking orders in world politics, there is a good chance of a circulation of elites or cycles in who is on top and who is not. Shifts in resource endowments, technology, and geopolitical goals improve the probability of elite changes all the more so.
A fourth approach to the cycles-in-world politics question addresses why and how states ascend and decline. We have theories that privilege various reasons including economic wealth concentration, technological innovation, population size, large armies, and large navies. Some theories emphasize several of these attributes while others are more selective and stress one or two. A lot of ink has been spilt generating critiques of one set of attributes versus another. It is not clear that we will ever resolve the variable claims to theoretical superiority predicated on picking the right attributes. I will certainly not pursue that auxiliary question here. Instead, I prefer to focus on a more generic type of process that suggests a fifth approach.
The fifth approach to the cycles in world politics question seeks a more fundamental answer to the cyclical question. What is it about human behavior that leads to cyclical behavior? There are actual multiple answers to this question. For instance, fatigue and habit can lead to people falling asleep when the sun goes down. Heat and cold encourage more or less clothing. Sex can lead to birth and disintegrating bodies foretell death. There is no reason to try to catalogue all of the possible reasons for cyclical patterns in human behavior. For an interest in world politics, though, the most generic answer is that human activities tend to expand or grow, subject to various types of constraints. Populations, economies, military budgets, and states, to name a few, tend to grow larger over time. If there were absolutely no constraints on growth, everything would simply continue expanding. But there are a host of possible constraints. Disease and war can devastate populations. Depressions downsize economies. Military budgets must compete with other demands for public allocations. Expanding states may clash with coalitions of states that are colluding to eliminate a mutual threat. The basic dynamic for human collectives is thus activity growth subject to variable constraints.
Rates of growth, as a consequence, tend to be S-shaped. The rate of growth starts slowly, accelerates, and then is most likely to taper off as some sort of ceiling or barrier is encountered. Many activities go even further and begin to decay or experience negative growth. The emergence and death of these activities create life cycles. We can identify when they are just beginning, when they are growing quickly, when their growth is leveling off, and when they are dying. Figure 1 captures the relationship between S-shaped growth and the life cycle. Ascending growth is captured on the left side of the dividing line. As the growth rate diminishes or decelerates, one can move into the right hand side of the bell-shaped life cycle – although one can have S-shaped growth without bringing closure to a life cycle. But because so many activities, human and otherwise, possess life cycles and S-shaped growth curves, we can label this pattern the natural one. Patterns that deviate seem to be more rare and therefore are unnatural processes by frequency.
/Figure 1 about here/
That leaves entirely open whether world politics is characterized by natural or unnatural processes. Of course, there are many processes in world politics but my assertion is merely that many of the most important ones are natural – which is to say that they possess S-shaped growth curves and life cycles. If that is true, then cycles of world politics are both probable and completely natural. They need not have exact periodicities nor need they be perfect repetitions of what has gone before. If such characteristics are deemed absolutely essential to cyclical behavior by purists who believe that all cycles possess these attributes (incorrectly), then what we have in world politics are waves (of variable lengths) of repetitive behavior subject to emergence, accelerating growth, then decelerating growth, and, frequently, some form of death – or life cycles. It is constant anarchy, unrelenting chaos, or a complete absence of structure, pattern or predictability that would be unnatural.
Such observations are easy to put forward. Are they, or can they be, substantiated by the history of world politics? The answer is most definitely yes. Previously examined tables 1 and 2, for example, are highly suggestive of S-shaped growth and cyclical behavior. Figure 2 helps make this suggestiveness more concrete by focusing on the ship building of three (Portugal, the Netherlands, and Britain) of the leading naval powers of the 1490s-1850s era. The Portuguese and Dutch life cycles are clearly delineated with initial rapid growth, peaking in the 1510s and 1640s respectively, and then decaying somewhat more slowly than was characterized by the early rapid growth. Britain’s naval life cycle is only partially demonstrated, in part due to the technological changes in ship construction (and numbers) after the late 19th century. Its early growth was slow, accelerated to an early peak in the mid-17th century, faltered, and then re-accelerated into the 18th century before coasting into an apparent Napoleonic era peak, and then finally decaying. Not shown is the British revival in armored battleships later in the 19th century before a long decay across the first half or so of the 20th century. The point is that the shapes are not identical but they clearly resemble life cycles – in this case, of naval power.
/Figure 2 about here/
The British experience also underscores the contingent element in life cycles. There is no pre-determined, single run up and down the life cycle. Actors can on occasion rejuvenate their trajectories and renew their s-shaped growth curves. Keklik (2003:92) calls these phenomena an escalating logistic form that takes the shape described in figure 3. Of course, activities other than naval construction can experience this type of renewed growth. Technological innovation, as we shall see, has led to economic rebirths in a number of economic production sectors (e.g., railroads, steel, automobiles). Lead economies, as a consequence, tend to regularly enjoy at least two and sometimes more than two spurts of revolutionary economic innovation.
/Figure 3 about here/
It is possible to take the observations on naval power life cycles one step further. Table 3 isolates the relative share of global naval power for the abstract century ranging from the xx90s to the xx80s a hundred years later. The first column applies to the end of the 15th to the 16th century. The second column runs from the 1590s to the 1680s. The third column starts in the 1690s and ends in the 1780s, and so on with each successive column. Each century does not work exactly the same but it is possible to average across the centuries to create an average score for naval power concentration. Figure 4 plots these average scores for the ten generic decades. What emerges is the classic life cycle shape with fast growth at the outset, a period of maturation, followed by a gradual decay from the peak. This regularity is one of the fundamental bases of the leadership long cycle interpretation of world politics: the concentration of global reach capabilities tends to be cyclical, as sketched in figure 5’s focus on the five successive eras of naval leadership.
/Table 3 about here/
/Figure 4 about here/
/Figure 5 about here/
Table 2 suggests army leadership in Europe fluctuated not entirely unlike the oscillations in global naval power – that is, the number of leaders are few and their leads tended to be finite. Fluctuations in the shares of regional army size are less smooth than naval shares in part because war emergencies lead to upward spikes that are likely to subside rapidly in post-war eras. Figure 6 plots the relative shares of Spain and France across several hundred years. Spain, beginning with an initial and short-lived size escalation for the conquest of Grenada, grew quickly through the 16th century with a maximal peak immediately prior to the onset of the Thirty Years War, and an unarrested decline after the mid-17th century. The French share moved up and down through the 16th and much of the 17th centuries. Rapid growth occurred in the Louis XIVth era, peaking during the War of the Spanish Succession. Relative decline set in thereafter with noticeable resurgences in the mid-18th and French Revolutionary/Napoleonic periods. After 1815, while the size of French armies grew, its relative share never really moved much out of the 10-20 percent range. Figure 6 thus shows two European army life cycles that peaked in the late 16th/early 17th (Spain) and late 17th/early 18th (France) centuries respectively.
/Figure 6 about here/
Figure 7 continues the story with an emphasis on the Prussian/German and Russian/Soviet changes in relative army share. Figure 7 requires a bit more caution in interpretation because some of the Russian numbers need qualification. That is, the size of the Russian army prior to World War II is not an indicator that can be used without some caveats and probably a systematic discounting due to several factors (the distance of Russia from European battlefields, the scale and multiple orientations of the Russian empire, and underfunding of Russian military activities). These same considerations have led to an artificial diminishment of the German relative share in figure 6. Counting European soldiers after 1945, especially German soldiers, also involve some comparability problems with earlier decades. The German track upwards after 1945 is much less significant in reality (and numbers of soldiers) that might seem to be the case. Nonetheless, the German and Russian relative army sizes move upwardly spasmodically, peak (Germany in the first half of the 20th century and the Soviet Union in the second half of that century), and then decline. If we had European army data through the 21st century, it might show persistent, if undoubtedly irregular, decay. Since we do not have access to many of these data as yet, it is more prudent to emphasize that figure 6 shows at least the first half of the life cycles of German and Russian army size. Without going into a decade-by-decade discussion of the up and down movements, the basic shape is again positive growth from very low levels to some sort of peak and the strong suggestion of decline – or, in other words, two more life cycles in relative military power with rather profound implications for the course of world politics over the past one hundred years.
/Figure 7 about here/
Life cycles in relative military power are probably sufficient to lead to cycles in world politics. But S-shaped growth and cycles are by no means restricted to the military sphere. Technological and economic change work this way as well. Technological innovations are well known to possess the following characteristics. Their initial appearances cluster in time and space. They have life cycles in which their employment is at first low, then subject to rapid growth before the opportunities for further gains in efficiency or productivity are maximized and slower growth results. Technological innovation also diffuses, albeit unevenly. The new technology is possessed initially only by the pioneering innovators and then is imitated (and/or improved upon) by other parts of the pioneering economy and by other economies. Yet diffusion is also S-shaped. Initially, there is a wide field of potential adopters but eventually the numbers of potential adopters approaches exhaustion and the diffusion process slows down. Old technology is replaced by new technology that goes through the same cyclical processes that the old technology experienced.
To the extent, then, that technological innovation drives modern economic growth, and a variety of research programs would say that this assertion is rather difficult to exaggerate, economic growth is characterized by S-shapes and life cycles. Modelski and Thompson (1996) find this type of behavior in technological innovation extending back over the past 1000 years. It has led to discontinuous economic growth, with key foci and economic leadership shifting from time to time not unlike the fluctuations in navy and army capability concentration. It is a pattern that has been detected by a number of observers but goes by the name of Kondratieff waves, named after one of its earliest and highly visible students – the Russian economist, N.D. Kondratieff (1935/1979). Roughly 50 years in length, economic growth waxes up and down as new technologies are introduced and old ones driven out of the marketplace. A host of related economic activities – transportation, investment, infrastructure, energy sources, corporate mergers and bankruptcies, debt crises in the global South to name some – have become caught up in this same discontinuous rhythm of rapid growth and crash. Table 4 captures some of this pattern for the past two centuries and more.
/Table 4 about here/
The point of table 4 is to suggest that what are called clusters of “pervasive” technologies come and go with some regularity. The clusters in the top half of the table diffuse throughout the economies in which they are found, often with revolutionary implications on how things are done in economic production but also in terms of societal relations and political institutions. They are deemed pervasive because they penetrate throughout the systems in which they emerge. They represent activities and process that literally dominate successive eras.
As the activities listed in the top half of the table approach their limitations, diminishing returns are experienced in a number of different sectors. The activities listed in the bottom half of the table are developed as alternative approaches at these times and, to the extent that they are successful, they supplant the old pervasive technologies with new ones. These economic transitions are rarely smooth. Indeed, the more difficult the transitions are, the greater are the crises in economics and politics, and this generalization unquestionably also encompasses world politics.
Since technological innovations tend to be monopolized by single economies initially and take time to diffuse, one economy seizes the lead status for as long as it can continue producing at, and expanding, the technological frontier. There are various limitations on how long this status can be retained. The new technology becomes old. The new technology ultimately is imitated by rivals. Some other states may control more resources, larger markets, and better locations. They are apt to be less committed to old technologies and have yet to develop the complacency that can accompany success and hamper the adoption of continuing innovation.
Still, lead economies enjoy respectable durations at the peak of the global economy focused on long-distance trade and cutting edge, industrial production. Figure 8 indicates that the “terms” are not unlike those for naval leadership. The identities of the lead economies are also, and not coincidentally, the same, moving from Portugal to the Netherlands, to Britain twice, and then to the United States. Ascents tend to be fairly rapid, with the Netherlands the one exception. Declines are more protracted but the overall movement is from one national lead economy’s life cycle to the next. What these lead economy’s life cycles encompass are clusters of technological innovations, with each lead economy cycle constructed around two successive clusters of innovation or Kondratieff waves – a process underway long before Britain’s late 18th century industrial revolution. Thus, the dynamics of the global economy are multiple but especially critical are the successions of bundled, S-curved innovations sketched in figure 9.
/Figure 8 about here/
/Figure 9 about here/
Another critical dynamic of the global economy are catch-up processes. One state takes the lead while rivals attempt to match the leader’s success and surpass the incumbent power if at all possible. This process contributes mightily to intermittent global wars that seal the triumph of one lead economy over others. It also leads to considerable ideational conflict – less so in the commercial era and much more so in the industrial era from the late 18th century on. The hot and cold wars involving liberalism, fascism, and communism, with the latter two ideational packages focused on how to catch up to the liberal lead economy and how best to organize the world, dominated much of the 20th century. Islamic jihadism may need to be added to this list for the early 21st century but not as a catch-up design. Rather, it is, among other things, a way to resist the penetration of a liberal global economy and its myriad implications for social orders. It is not only material artifacts and capabilities that cycle. Ideas in world politics have life cycles as well.
Over the past millennium, and especially during the last half-millennium, technological, naval, army, lead economy, global war and ideational life cycles have become more distinctive and more powerful. We should have become increasingly more aware of these life cycles rather than less so. Part of the problem is that cycles first have to emerge and grow intro their metaphorical skins. If the Portuguese, Dutch, and first British phases had been more distinctive or as distinctive as the celebrated Pax Britannica and Pax Americana of the second British and first U.S. leads, we would probably find it more difficult to overlook the pattern of cycles in world politics. But the early phases were weaker than more recent ones. As a consequence, we argue about systemic leadership. Has there been one, two, three, or more? Must they all be equally blatant or overt to recognize their similar shapes? Regrettably, there is no consensus on these questions. Nor are there definitive answers that all can share as axiomatic to our collective analytical undertaking. Thus we persist in our disagreements about some very fundamental characteristics of world politics.
One way out of this impasse is to continue to press the case for S-shaped growth curves and life cycles in world politics. In this vein, a fairly new and most promising development in historical modeling, termed secular cycle analysis, revives the Malthusian emphasis on population growth and carrying capacity in agrarian economies. Population growth, other things being equal, is likely to take the shape of an S-curve. As population growth expands, states are benefited by more revenues and less domestic instability, as forecast in table 5. State strength is also improving on the uptick. The ambitions of decision makers in such settings may also expand. But as a population moves towards approximating whatever resource limitations it may confront, a large number of problems begin appearing including more intensive competition among elites, revenue falloffs, increasing instability, rising prices, and greater disease incidence. Societies break down. States collapse. Yet internal and external conflict, along with epidemics, contribute to reductions in population size and reduced pressure on carrying capacity. The cycle is then set for another iteration as population growth begins to expand once again.
/Table 5 about here/
This ecological-demographic approach to political-economic fluctuations needs a great deal more testing but the early results seem quite attractive. Should the interpretation hold up, we will have a much more powerful explanation of pre-industrial behavior. There is also some clear potential for improving our understanding of world politics in agrarian settings. As table 6 indicates more emphatically, the argument suggests some novel predictions about when we should expect warfare involving agrarian states. An interest in external aggression is whetted in the expansion phase, manifested in the stagflation era, and, presumably, cut back in the crisis and depression phases if we control for the increased susceptibility of the most impacted states to external attack. For the most part, this is a thesis that we have not yet begun to study in part because it is no simple matter assessing the timing of carrying capacity crises. But if it helps us to explain who fights and when, assuming that different locales are likely to possess variance in relative resource depletion, we will have advanced quite significantly our ability to make sense of agrarian world politics.
/Table 6 about here/
Industrialization has altered our ability to expand carrying capacities immensely. Thus, the secular cycle approach may prove to be restricted to pre-19th century world politics. At the same time, a quite respectable proportion of the world remains primarily agrarian. The industrialized world is not without its own limitations either. Whether the perspective has continuing relevance is not directly of concern here. Explanations of all sorts, including ones focused on cycles, possess space and time limitations even though we have not been particularly adept at developing scope conditions for our theoretical undertakings. Yet the fact remains that the secular cycle argument is quite compatible with a generic focus on activities that grow in S-shaped fashion to create life cycles in world politics.
Everything is not cyclical but there is a lot more cyclical behavior in world politics than we have hitherto acknowledged or fully deciphered. Human behavior operates over space and in time. Activities expand and contract in reaction to limitations and competition. S-shaped growth curves and life cycles may well be ubiquitous. It should not be surprising, then, that some temporal dynamics in some places give rise (and fall) to very important cyclical or, if one prefers, wave-like behavior. World politics is certainly no exception.
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Table 1: Changes in Global Naval Elite
Year 1 2 3
1500 England (.286) France (.286) Portugal (.238)
1550 Portugal (.412) England (.258) Spain (.186)
1600 Spain (.411) Netherlands (.306) England (.282)
1650 England (.367) Netherlands (.321) France (.161)
1700 France (.342) England (.333) Netherlands (.249)
1750 Britain (.441) France (.202) Spain (.144)
1800 Britain (.401) Spain (.191) France (.185)
1850 Britain (.476) France (.230) Russia (.211)
1900 Britain (.392) France (.178) United States (.152)
1950 United States (1.000)
2000 United States (.788) Russia (.212)
Source: Modelski and Thompson (1988) data and updated information for 2000.
Note: Numbers in parentheses refer to proportional share of naval capability measured differently in different years.
Table 2: Changes in European Army Elite
Year 1 2 3
1500-04 England (25) Ottoman E. (23) Spain (18)/
France (18)
1550-54 Spain (150) France (44) Ottoman E. (42)
1600-04 Spain (125) Ottoman E. (89) England (24)
1650-54 France (150) Spain (120) Ottoman E. (101)
1700-04 France (195) Sweden (100) Britain (93)
1750-54 France (249) Russia (163) Austria (137)
1800-04 France (750) Russia (415) Austria (267)
1850-54 Russia (996) France (478) Austria (445)
1900-04 Russia (1000) France (673) Germany (495)
1950-54 USSR (3200) Britain (527) France (525)
2000 Russia (348) Germany (275) France (178
Data Source: Rasler and Thompson (1994) and updates for Levy and Thompson (2005).
Table 3: The Naval Concentration Pattern
Decades in Successive Centuries Portugal Netherlands Britain Britain II USA Mean
xx90s .250 .279 .269 .334 .064 .283
xx00s .238 .306 .333 .401 .152 .320
xx10s .674 .541 .427 .500 .206 .556
xx20s .500 .497 .517 .588 .399 .526
xx30s .577 .495 .461 .524 .334 .514
xx40s .573 .605 .464 .462 .273 .526
xx50s .412 .321 .441 .476 1.000 .413
xx60s .425 .335 .423 .493 .820 .419
xx70s .389 .320 .434 .477 .712 .405
xx80s .202 .227 .367 .522 .620 .330
Note: The decades begin in the 1490s (Portuguese column) and continue through the 1980s (USA column).
Table 4: Clusters of Pervasive Technologies
1770-1830 1820-1880 1870-1940 1930-1990 1980-2040
Dominant
Water power, sails, canals, turnpikes, iron castings, textiles coal, iron, steam power, mechanical
equipment railways, steam ships, heavy industry, steel, dyestuff, telegraph electric power, oil, cars, radio, TV, durables, petro-
chemicals gas, nuclear, aircraft, telecom-munications, photo-electron
Emergent
mechanical equipment, coal, stationary steam power steel,
city gas, indigo, telegraph, railways electricity, cars, trucks, radio, phone, oil, roads, petro
chemicals nuclear,
computers, gas, telecom-munications aircraft biotechnology, artificial intelligence, space industry and transport
General
Approach manufacture industrial production standard-zation Ford-Taylorism quality control
Source: Based on Grubler (1990:260). The list of technology clusters is meant to be illustrative as opposed to exhaustive and the timing of the development eras is only approximate.
Table 5: Secular Cycles Expectations
Expansion Stagflation Crisis Depression
Population
Dynamics Rate of growth accelerates Large and increasing size but growth rate decelerating In decline from peak Low size and little sustained growth
Elite Dynamics Low to moderate numbers and modest consumption Increasing numbers; increasing competition; conspicuous consumption High numbers;
Factionalization and conflict;
High income inequality Reduction of elite numbers due to war and downward mobility;
Collapse of consumption levels
State strength increasing High but declining collapse Periodic restoration attempts and repeated breakdown
State finances Increasing revenues Declining real revenues State bankruptcy and loss of control over army/ bureaucracy Poor but variable
State policy Laissez faire domestically but increased interest in external conquest Increasing attempts at social reform and infrastructure construction; colonization;
External territorial aggression Social reforms sometimes leading to social revolution Retrenchment;
Weakening of state may result in external invasion
Sociopolitical instability Low Low but increasing peaking High but declining
Domestic order increasing High but declining;
Tax resistance Uprisings;
Intra-elite conflict;
Regional/nationalist
rebellions Recurrent civil war; political fragmentation;
External invasion susceptibility
Ideology optimistic Growth of social pessimism and criticism Popular movements for social justice and land redistribution Pessimistic
Grain prices Low increasing high Decreasing
Urbanization Low increasing high High but declining
Trade Low developing Declining and interrupted by unrest Contingent
Epidemic incidence Rare increasing Often catastrophic High but declining
Source: Modified from Turchin and Nefedov (forthcoming, chapter 1).
Table 6: Secular Cycles with an Emphasis on International Considerations
Expansion Stagflation Crisis Depression
Population Dynamics Rate of growth accelerates Large and increasing size but growth rate decelerating In decline from peak Low size and little sustained growth
State strength increasing High but declining collapse Periodic restoration attempts and repeated breakdown
State policy Increased interest in external conquest Colonization and external territorial aggression Weakening of state may result in external invasion
Trade Low developing Declining and interrupted by unrest Contingent



